Norse mythology, Scandinavian mythology, Viking mythology; all refer to the pre-Christian religion of the Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic, and Danish peoples. A few books group Finnish mythology in with the Norse but the old beliefs of Finland form a separate tradition although there are some interesting parallels.
The Norse mythological system as we currently have it comes down to us mainly from the Icelandic Eddas and sagas which were written down a few centuries after the christianization of the north. There has been much research trying to discern the true ancient religion as practiced by the people of the Scandinavian countries as opposed to the representation we are given in the written sources.
Aside from any influence Christianity might have played, Norse mythology presents us with a multilayered, often contradictory, world view with a myriad of parallels in other mythological systems. It is a playground for the comparative mythology researcher, rich with elements from Indo-European, Shamanistic, and other belief systems.
Many people are familiar with J.R.R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings or Wagner's The Ring of the Nibelung, but they are not familiar with Norse mythology to which both of these works are heavily indebted.
Tolkien was very well acquainted with Norse mythology, as can be seen by the use of it in his books. The name of one of his main characters, Gandalf, is found in The Poetic Edda. Gandalf is, in some ways, reminiscent of Odin, the leader of the Norse pantheon. Even the name Middle-earth, the setting for Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, comes from Norse mythology.
Wagner also referred to Norse tales. When he composed The Ring of the Nibelung, he combined the Norse The Saga of the Volsungs with the German epic The Nibelungenlied. Wagner relied less heavily on the The Nibelungenlied than some believe, and instead turned to the more pagan Volsung saga with its tale of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer and the valkyrie Brynhild.
There are many ways to spell the names of the Norse mythological figures. I have chosen the most common. In some places I have supplied alternative spellings and the original Old Norse form. I have also supplied some translations which are mainly from Hollander's The Poetic Edda in brackets.
:::>^..^<::: ~*~The Journey is more important than the end or the start~*~ :::>^..^<:::
Following is a list of some of the major players in Norse mythology and also some of the more enigmatic ones. You will find gods and goddesses, heroes and giants. There are a multitude of other lesser figures which are mentioned throughout other portions of the site.
Creation Myth
The Norse creation story has heaps of mythic elements, from the primeval giant Ymir to the cow Audhumla the reader is beseiged with mythic archetypes. This is a problem for the researcher trying to sort out true heathen tradition from the trappings of Christianity.
What the Eddas Say
In the beginning there was the void. And the void was called Ginnungagap. What does Ginnungagap mean? Yawning gap, beginning gap, gap with magical potential, mighty gap; these are a few of the educated guesses. Along with the void existed Niflheim the land of fog and ice in the north and Muspelheim the land of fire in the south. There seems to be a bit of confusion as to whether or not these existed after Ginnungagap or along side of it from the beginning.
In Niflheim was a spring called Hvergelmir from which the Elivagar (eleven rivers - Svol, Gunnthra, Fiorm, Fimbulthul, Slidr, Hrid, Sylg, Ylg, Vid, Leiptr, and Gioll) flowed. The Elivargar froze layer upon layer until it filled in the northerly portion of the gap. Concurrently the southern portion was being filled by sparks and molten material from Muspelheim.
The mix of fire and ice caused part of the Elivagar to melt forming the figures Ymir the primeval giant and the cow Audhumla. The cow's milk was Ymir's food. While Ymir slept his under arm sweat begat two frost giants, one male one female, while his two legs begat another male.
While Ymir was busy procreating Audhumla was busy eating. Her nourishment came from licking the salty ice. Her incessant licking formed the god Buri. He had a son named Bor who was the father of Odin, Vili, and Ve.
For some reason the sons of Bor decided to kill poor Ymir. His blood caused a flood which killed all of the frost giants except for two, Bergelmir and his wife, who escaped the deluge in their boat.
Odin, Vili, and Ve put Ymir's corpse into the middle of ginnungagap and created the earth and sky from it. They also created the stars, sun, and moon from sparks coming out of Muspelheim.
Finally, the brothers happened upon two logs lying on the beach and created the first two humans Ask [ash] and Embla [elm or vine] from them.
:::>^..^<::: ~*~The Journey is more important than the end or the start~*~ :::>^..^<:::
Ragnarok
Three little ice ages will fall upon the world, known as the Fimbulvetr (translated as terrible winter by Young, also referred to as Fimbulwinter), and many other signs will come to pass. Then the time will arrive and the cocks will crow. The fire giants led by Surt will come out of Muspelheim. Naglfar, the ship made out of dead men's nails, will carry the frost giants to the battlefield, Vigrid....
:::>^..^<::: ~*~The Journey is more important than the end or the start~*~ :::>^..^<:::
Sometimes compared to the greek fates, three supernatural women who tend the Yggdrasil and determine fate. Their names are: Urd [fate], Skuld [necessity], and Verdandi [being]. There are more than three Norns. It is believed that a norn is present at a persons birth to determine his/her fate.
:::>^..^<::: ~*~The Journey is more important than the end or the start~*~ :::>^..^<:::
The Futhark
A germanic alphabet used since about 3CE. It is referred to as FUTHARK, after the first 6 letters. Each rune was a letter in the alphabet and also stood for a word (its name). The earliest use of runes was for magical purposes (this is debatable -- see R.I. Page's book listed in the sources below). There were many different Futharks. The one used here is the elder Germanic Futhark.
Seeresses. An in-depth description of a Volva is found in Eirik the Red. The woman in the saga wore a cloak with a catskin lined hood and catskin gloves. She had a belt with a pouch on it, in which she carried her magical items. She also carried a staff.
A typical prophesizing ritual seemed to consist of the volva sitting on a platform, slipping into a trance like state, and while in the altered state of consciousness communing with spirits to learn the anwers to questions. Questions concerning health, war, farming, and any other common activity were frequent. The ritual performed by the volva was referred to as seidr, meaning sorcery.
A good description of the prophetic ritual is given in Hrolf's Saga Kraka. The king asks the seeress to locate two boys, she slips into a sort of trance, opens her mouth wide, and chants out her answer.
:::>^..^<::: ~*~The Journey is more important than the end or the start~*~ :::>^..^<:::
The Poetic Edda is the older of the two Eddas and therefore sometimes called the Elder Edda. It is also sometimes referred to as Saemund's Edda after a famous Icelander. It consists of many different tales which were put together by an anonymous person probably around 1250 CE. The date of origin of the various poems has long been under discussion. Birger Nerman, in The Poetic Edda in the Light of Archaeology, puts forward the opinion that the majority of the stories must have been written before the Viking age. This book is quite dated though (1930) and it would be interesting to see a more recent essay on this subject.
The Poetic Edda can be divided into two sections, a mythical one and a heroic one. The mythical poems, which are generally considered younger, are:
Völuspá, Prophecy of the Vala
A volva chants about the cosmos, from creation to destruction.
Hávamál, Sayings of Hár
Wisdom sayings. Also, the story of how Odin learned the runes.
Vafţrúđnismál, Sayings of Vafţrúđnir"
Odin matches wits with a wise giant.
Grimnismál, Sayings of Grimnir
Agnar and Geirrod are brother princes and foster sons of Frigg and Odin. Geirrod the younger does away with his brother so he can be King. Frigg gets Odin to visit his favorite Geirrod, but first she implants evil notions in the King's head so he will treat Odin poorly. Odin arrives at Geirrod's saying his name is Grimnir, gets tossed into a fire, and avenges himself by killing Geirrod.
Skirnismál, Sayings of Skirnir
Frey falls in love with Gerd so he has his servant Skirnir go woo her for him.
Rick McGregor's Skmrnismal as Ritual Drama: A Summary of Scholarship this Century, is very informative.
Hárbarzljóđ, Lay of Hárbarth
Thor and Hárbarth (Odin) have a contest regarding who has more accomplishments.
Hýmiskviđa, Lay of Hymir
Thor and Tyr go to the giant Hymir's in search of a kettle large enough for Aegir to brew ale in for the gods' feast. While with the giant, they go fishing and Thor hooks the Midgard Serpent.
Lokasenna, Loki's Mocking
Loki crashes a party of the gods at Aegir's hall and slanders all.
Ţrymskviđa, Lay of Thrym
Thrym steals Thor's hammer. Thrym states he will give it back if he can marry Freya. Freya will have no part in the bargain so Thor dresses in drag, pretending to be Freya going to her wedding feast.
Alvíssmál, Sayings of Alvís
The dwarf Alvis wants to marry Thor's daughter Thrud. He ends up in a contest of knowledge and is outwitted by Thor, who keeps the dwarf up until the sun comes up, thereby turning Alvis into Stone.
Baldrs draumar, Balder's Dream
Balder has nightmares so Odin rides to the underworld to talk to a volva to find out what Balder's dreams portend.
Rigsţula, Rig's Song
Rig, another name for Heimdall, journeys about middle-earth siring the three social classes of man: slave, freeman, and noble.
Hyndluljóđ, Lay of Hyndla
Freya rides her lover Ottar (in boar form) to Hyndla's and gets the wise woman to state Ottar's ancestory.
Vöuspá hin skamma, The Short Prophecy of the Vala
A shorter version of the history and future of the universe.
Svipdagsmál: Grógaldr, Fjölsvinnsmál, Sayings of Svipdag: Spell of Gróa, Sayings of Fjölsvith
Svipdag is pushed by his stepmother into finding the love of his life and winning her.
The heroic lays, which are considered to have earlier dates of origin than the mythical lays:
Völundarkviđa, The Lay of Volund
The Helgi Lays: Helgakvđa Hjörvarţssonar, The Lay of Helgi
Hjorvarthsson, Helgakviđa Hundingsbana I, The First Lay of Helgi the Hunding-Slayer, Helgakviđa Hundingsbana II, The Second Lay of Helgi the Hunding-Slayer
Frá dauđa Sinfjötla, Sinfjotli's Death
Grípisspá, The Prophecy of Gripir
Reginsmál, The Lay of Regin
Fáfnismál, The Lay of Fafnir
Sigrdrífumál, The Lay of Sigrdrifa
The Great Lacuna
Brot af Sigurţarkvđu, Fragment of a Sigurd Lay
Guđrúnarkviđa I, The First Lay of Gudrun
Sigurţarkviđa hin skamma, The Short Lay of Sigurd
Helreiđ Brynhildar, Brynhid's Ride to Hel
Dráp Niflunga, The Fall of the Niflungs
Guđrúnarkviđa II (hin forna), The Second (or Old) Lay of Gudrun
Guđrúnarkviđa III, The Third Lay of Gudrun
Oddrúnargrátr, The Plaint of Oddcrúnargrátr
Atlakviđa, The Lay of Atli
Atlamál hin groenlenzku, The Greenlandish Lay of Atli
Guđrúnarhvöt, Gudrun's Lament
Hamđismál, The Lay of Hamdir
The Prose Edda
The Prose Edda or Younger Edda, was written by Snorri Sturluson around 1220 CE. It consists of three sections. The first part is "The Deluding of Gylfi", or Gylfaginning. It consists of a story in which Gylfi asks three chieftains -- High One, Just-as-high, and Third -- questions about Norse mythology. The second section, Skáldskaparmál ('Poetic Diction'), gives various kennings and the stories behind them. Háttatal is the final part of the Prose Edda and it is about King Hakon and different meters.
What does "Edda" mean?
There are many theories concerning the meaning of the word edda. One theory holds that it means "great-grandmother". Another theory holds that edda means "poetics". A third belief is that it means "the book of Oddi". Oddi is the name of a place Snorri Sturluson was educated. Whatever the meaning of the word, students of Norse mythology would be lost without the Eddas.
On-line versions of the Eddas
Some of the stories from The Poetic Edda in Old Norse and Swedish from Project Runeberg. Thorpe's translation of The Poetic Edda is available from the Midhnott Sol.
A full translation of The Prose Edda is available at Sacred Texts. A partial translation is available from the Midhnott Sol. There is another partial translation available from Woden's Harrow.
:::>^..^<::: ~*~The Journey is more important than the end or the start~*~ :::>^..^<:::
Chronology
Dates are approximations in many instances.
100 Tacitus writes Germania
200 Migration Period begins
300 Earliest runic inscriptions in Denmark
375 Ermenrichus king of the Goths dies. He is the basis for Jormunrek of the Volsungasaga
436 Huns battle Burgundians
437 Burgundian King Gundaharius dies. He is the basis for the fictional Gunnar of the Volsungasaga.
449 Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrate to Britain
450 Tune stone of Ostfold Norway made, has Old German alliterative line.
453 Attila the Hun dies possibly at the hands of his new wife the Germanic Ildico, the name a form of Hild (Byock, 19). Attila is the basis for the fictional Atli of the Volsungasaga.
500 Migration Period ends
528 Hygelac king of the geats raids frisia and the rhine
550 Jordanes writes History of the Goths
570 Danes raid Frisia
597 St. Augustine begins conversion of Anglo-Saxons
600 Statue of Buddha finds its way to Helgo Sweden
600 Uppsala established
630 Sutton Hoo Ship Burial
700 Vendel Ship Burial
700 Frank's casket made in Anglo-Saxon England depicting Weland (Volund) the Smith on one panel and the archer Aegili on another.
700 Eggjum rune stone in Sogn Norway created. Its diction foreshadowing skaldic poetry.
700 Beowulf thought to have been composed. It contains references to the Volsung legend, the Brisingmen, and Weland / Wayland (Volund) the smith.
705 Foundation of Ribe on the Jutland peninsula
715 Willibrord leads first Christian mission to Scandinavia. His attempt to convert the Danes is unsuccessful.
720 Angantyr King of Denmark
737 Danevirke constructed
750 Swedish Vikings establish Staraja Ladoga in Russia
750 Foundation of Birka in Svealand (now Sweden)
770 Waldere composed. Contains reference to Wayland (Volund).
786 Paul the Deacon begins work on Historia Langobardorum which contains a legend about Woden and Frija.
789 Norwegians Vikings attack Portland England, the first attack on England
793 Vikings raid Lindisfarne
795 First recorded Viking attacks on Ireland and Scotland
800 Earliest Skaldic poetry
808 The Danish king Godfred sacks the trading center of Reric and moves all of its traders to Hedeby on the Jutland peninsula.
810 Godfred, King of Denmark, dies
810 Danish attack Frisia and impose tribute
820 Oseberg ship built
826 Danish King Harald Klak converted to Christianity. He is baptized at Mainz and is accompanied by Anskar on his return to Denmark.
827 Harald Klak expelled from Denmark
829 Anskar's first mission to Birka
839 Swedish Vikings reach Constantinople
839 Vikings attack the Picts
841 Viking base Dublin established
843 Frisia comes under Viking control
844 First Viking raid on Spain
845 Pagan uprising causes missionaries to leave Birka
850 The Danish king Horik I allows Anskar to build churches at Ribe and Hedeby
860 Swedish Vikings, the Rus attack Constantinople
862 Rurik becomes ruler of Novgorod
862 Finns and Slavs invite Rurik and the Rus to rule over them
865 Anskar dies
866 Danes occupy York
866 Vikings from Ireland and Scotland make Picts pay tribute
869 Edmund, king of East Anglia is killed by Vikings
870 Vikings begin settling Iceland
870 Halfdan King of Denmark
871 Vikings winter in London
873 Ivar, king of the norse in Ireland, the Hebrides, and Scotland, dies
879 Rurik dies in Russia, Oleg assumes rule
880 Oleg rules Kiev
880 Harald Finehair / Fairhair King of all Norway
895 Gokstad ship built
896 Viking army in England breaks up with some members staying in England to live.
900 Time of Thjodolf of Hvinir a poet of King Harald Finehair. He composed the Ynglinga Tal and Haustlong.
900 Helgi King of Denmark dies
902 Vikings expelled from Dublin
911 Rollo founds Normandy
917 Vikings recapture Dublin
919 Ragnald, grandson of Ivar of Dublin, gains control of York
930 Erik Bloodaxe King of Norway
930 Eyvind Skaldaspillir, skald to Norwegian kings Harald Fairhair and Hakon the Good
936 Hakon the Good King of Norway
937 English defeat Norse-Scottish alliance at battle of Brunanburh
940 Gorm the Old King of Denmark
944 The Irish sack Dublin
954 End of Viking kingdom of York when Erik Bloodaxe killed
958 Harald Bluetooth King of Denmark
960 Harald Greycloak becomes King of Norway
961 Viking raids in Wales begin.
965 Harald Bluetooth converts Danes to Christianity
970 Norway falls under Danish rule
974 Hedeby comes under German occupation until 983.
975 Exeter Book copied, contains the poem Deor which has a reference to Welend (Volund) the smith.
980 Varangian guard formed at Constantinople
985 Erik the Red sails from Iceland with a group of settlers headed to Greenland.
987 Svein Forkbeard King of Denmark
988 Vladimir of Kiev converts to Christianity
990 Einar Skalaglamm was a skald of Earl Hakon of Hladir who ruled Norway until 995. Einar was a friend of Egil Skallagrimsson.
990 Egil Skallagrimsson dies
991 Olaf Tryggvason defeats English at Maldon
992 Ibn Fablan witnesses Rus funeral rites
995 Olaf Tryggvason becomes king of Norway
1000 Conversion of Iceland to Christianity
1000 Earliest Swedish runic inscriptions
1000 Leif Erikson winters in Vinland
1000 Runestone in Sweden depicts Sigurd roasting Fafnir's heart.
1014 Brian Boru defeats Norse
1015 Olaf Haraldson (St. Olaf) becomes king of Norway
1016 Begin King Cnut the Great's rule over England
1019 Cnut the Great King of Denmark
1030 Svein Alfivason becomes King of Norway
1035 Earl Thorfinn of Orkney wins control over most of Northern Scotland
1035 Harthacnut King of Denmark
1035 Magnus the Good becomes king of Norway
1042 End of Danish rule in England
1042 Magnus the good King of Denmark, becomes King of Norwary in 1035
1043 Last Rus attack on Constantinople
1045 Harald Hardrada becomes king of Norway
1052 Diarmait takes Dublin
1066 Harold Hardrada killed at Stamford Bridge
1066 Magnus II becomes king of Norway
1075 Adam of Bremen writes Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum which includes description of the rituals performed at Uppsala
1080 Pagan ceremonies at Uppsala,Sweden end
1100 Welsh poetry with close parallels to skaldic lines
1125 Icelandic Book of Settlements written
1169 Danes expand into Baltic
1185 The Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus written
1195 Nibelungenlied written
1200 Saga of the Volsungs written down. The only manuscript in existence dates from ca 1400.
1210 Oldest Icelandic family sagas written.
1220 Prose Edda written
1230 Egils Saga written possibly by Snorri Sturluson
1240 Heimskringla written by Snorri Struluson
1240 Codex Regius manuscript of the Poetic Edda written
1245 Kormaks Saga written
1245 Laxdaela Saga written
1250 Swedish Lawbooks written down, they are in alliterative form
1261 Greenland comes under Norwegian rule
1263 Iceland comes under Norwegian rule
1266 Norway cedes Isle of Man and Hebrides to Scotland
1271 End of the Rus Rurik dynasty
1300 Grettir's Saga and Sturlunga Saga created
1330 Hauksbok written
1370 Flateyjabok written
1469 Denmark cedes Orkney and Shetland to Scotland
1480 Last Norse Greenland colony becomes extinct
:::>^..^<::: ~*~The Journey is more important than the end or the start~*~ :::>^..^<:::
05-20-2004 05:15 PM
